Everything is an Object in Python

#include <stdio.h>

// Example of procedural approach in C language
struct ParkSystem {
  int max;
  int occ;
};

int occupy(struct ParkSystem* ps) {
  if (ps->max <= ps->occ) {
      return -1;
  }
  ps->occ++;
  return 0;
}

void leave(struct ParkSystem* ps) {
  if (ps->occ > 0) {
      ps->occ--;
  }
}

int main() {
  struct ParkSystem ps = {100, 0};
  occupy(&ps);
  printf("%d %d", ps.max, ps.occ);
  return 0;
}

# Example of object-oriented approach in Python
class ParkSystem:
  def __init__(self, max_capacity):
      self.max = max_capacity
      self.occ = 0

  def occupy(self):
      if self.max <= self.occ:
          return -1
      self.occ += 1
      return 0

  def leave(self):
      if self.occ > 0:
          self.occ -= 1

# Usage
ps = ParkSystem(100)
ps.occupy()
print(f"Max: {ps.max}, Occupied: {ps.occ}")

class ParkingSystem:
  def __init__(self, capacity):
      """Initialize parking system with certain capacity"""
      if capacity <= 0:
          raise ValueError("Capacity must be positive")
      self.capacity = capacity
      self.vehicles = []  # List of parked vehicles

  def park_vehicle(self, vehicle_plate):
      """Method to park a vehicle"""
      if vehicle_plate in self.vehicles:
          return f"Vehicle {vehicle_plate} is already parked"
      if len(self.vehicles) >= self.capacity:
          return f"Parking full! Cannot park {vehicle_plate}"

      self.vehicles.append(vehicle_plate)
      return f"Vehicle {vehicle_plate} successfully parked"

  def exit_vehicle(self, vehicle_plate):
      """Method to exit parking"""
      if vehicle_plate in self.vehicles:
          self.vehicles.remove(vehicle_plate)
          return f"Vehicle {vehicle_plate} exited parking"
      else:
          return f"Vehicle {vehicle_plate} not found"

  def get_status(self):
      """Method to view parking status"""
      occupied = len(self.vehicles)
      available = self.capacity - occupied
      return {
          'capacity': self.capacity,
          'occupied': occupied,
          'available': available,
          'vehicles': tuple(self.vehicles)
      }

  def is_full(self):
      """Method to check if parking is full"""
      return len(self.vehicles) >= self.capacity

# Example usage
parking = ParkingSystem(5)
print(parking.park_vehicle("B 1234 CD"))
print(parking.park_vehicle("B 5678 EF"))
print(parking.get_status())
print(parking.is_full())

# Numbers in Python are objects
number = 42

# Numbers have methods
print(number.bit_length())  # Method to calculate bit length
print(number.__add__(8))    # Method for addition (same as number + 8)

# Float numbers are also objects
price = 15.75
print(price.is_integer())   # Method to check if it's a whole number
print(price.as_integer_ratio())  # Method to convert to ratio

# Even mathematical operation results are objects
result = 10 + 5
print(type(result))         # <class 'int'>
print(dir(result))          # View all available methods

# Strings in Python are very powerful objects
message = "Learning Python is Fun"

# Strings have many useful methods
print(message.upper())              # LEARNING PYTHON IS FUN
print(message.lower())              # learning python is fun
print(message.title())              # Learning Python Is Fun
print(message.count('n'))           # Count letter 'n'
print(message.replace('Python', 'Programming'))  # Replace word

# Methods for checking
email = "user@example.com"
print(email.endswith('.com'))       # True
print(email.startswith('user'))     # True
print(email.find('@'))              # Position of '@' character

# Methods for formatting
name = "alice"
age = 25
formatted = "Name: {}, Age: {}".format(name.title(), age)
print(formatted)

# String split and join
words = message.split()             # Split into word list
print(words)
rejoined = " ".join(words)          # Join back together
print(rejoined)

# Lists in Python are dynamic objects
fruits = ["apple", "orange", "mango"]

# Lists have methods for data manipulation
fruits.append("banana")             # Add at the end
print(fruits)

fruits.insert(1, "strawberry")      # Add at specific position
print(fruits)

fruits.remove("orange")             # Remove specific item
print(fruits)

# Methods for searching and sorting
numbers = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6]
print(numbers.count(1))             # Count occurrences
print(numbers.index(4))             # Find position

numbers.sort()                      # Sort
print(numbers)

numbers.reverse()                   # Reverse order
print(numbers)

# List comprehension - pythonic way
squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 6)]
print(squares)                      # [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

# Methods for advanced operations
original = [1, 2, 3]
copy_list = original.copy()         # Create copy
original.extend([4, 5])             # Add multiple items
print(f"Original: {original}")
print(f"Copy: {copy_list}")

# Dictionaries in Python are flexible objects
student = {
  "name": "Alice",
  "age": 22,
  "major": "Computer Science",
  "gpa": 3.8
}

# Dictionaries have methods for manipulation
print(student.get("name"))          # Get value safely
print(student.get("height", "Unknown"))  # Default value if key doesn't exist

# Methods to view dictionary contents
print(student.keys())               # All keys
print(student.values())             # All values
print(student.items())              # Key-value pairs

# Methods for update and manipulation
student.update({"semester": 6, "age": 23})  # Update multiple values
print(student)

# Pop method to get and remove
gpa = student.pop("gpa")
print(f"Removed GPA: {gpa}")
print(student)

# Dictionary comprehension
grades = {"Math": 85, "Physics": 92, "Chemistry": 78}
passed = {subject: grade for subject, grade in grades.items() if grade >= 80}
print(passed)

# Nested dictionary
university = {
  "students": {
      "CS": ["Alice", "Bob"],
      "Math": ["Charlie", "Diana"]
  },
  "location": "Jakarta"
}
print(university["students"]["CS"])

# Functions in Python are first-class objects
def greet(name):
  return f"Hello, {name}!"

def farewell(name):
  return f"Goodbye, {name}!"

# Functions have attributes
print(greet.__name__)               # Function name
print(type(greet))                  # <class 'function'>

# Functions can be stored in variables
my_function = greet
print(my_function("Alice"))         # Hello, Alice!

# Functions can be stored in lists
functions = [greet, farewell]
for func in functions:
  print(func("Bob"))

# Functions can be used as parameters
def call_function(func, name):
  return func(name)

result = call_function(greet, "Charlie")
print(result)

# Functions can be returned from other functions
def get_greeting_function(language):
  def english_greet(name):
      return f"Hello, {name}!"

  def indonesian_greet(name):
      return f"Halo, {name}!"

  if language == "english":
      return english_greet
  if language == "indonesian":
      return indonesian_greet
  raise ValueError(f"Unsupported language: {language}")

# Using returned function
greet_func = get_greeting_function("indonesian")
print(greet_func("Diana"))          # Halo, Diana!

# Lambda functions are also objects
square = lambda x: x ** 2
print(type(square))                 # <class 'function'>
print(square(5))                    # 25

# Creating class as blueprint
class Student:
  # Class attribute (shared by all instances)
  university = "University of Indonesia"

  def __init__(self, name, major, semester):
      # Instance attributes (unique for each instance)
      self.name = name
      self.major = major
      self.semester = semester
      self.courses = []

  def add_course(self, course):
      """Method to add a course"""
      self.courses.append(course)
      return f"{self.name} is taking course {course}"

  def get_info(self):
      """Method to get student information"""
      return {
          'name': self.name,
          'major': self.major,
          'semester': self.semester,
          'courses': self.courses,
          'university': self.university
      }

  def __str__(self):
      """Special method for string representation"""
      return f"Student({self.name}, {self.major})"

  def __len__(self):
      """Special method to get number of courses"""
      return len(self.courses)

# Creating instances (objects) from class
student1 = Student("Alice", "Computer Science", 4)
student2 = Student("Bob", "Mathematics", 6)

# Each instance is an object with attributes and methods
print(student1.add_course("Python Programming"))
print(student1.add_course("Data Structures"))

print(student2.add_course("Calculus"))
print(student2.add_course("Linear Algebra"))

# Using methods
print(student1.get_info())
print(student2.get_info())

# Special methods (__str__ and __len__)
print(student1)                     # Student(Alice, Computer Science)
print(len(student1))                # 2 (number of courses)

# Instances have accessible attributes
print(f"Name: {student1.name}")
print(f"Major: {student1.major}")
print(f"University: {student1.university}")

# Class is also an object
print(type(Student))                # <class 'type'>
print(Student.__name__)             # Student
print(Student.university)           # University of Indonesia

from math import hypot

class Vector2D:
  def __init__(self, x, y):
      self.x = x
      self.y = y

  def __str__(self):
      """Readable representation for people."""
      return f"({self.x}, {self.y})"

  def __repr__(self):
      """Unambiguous representation for debugging."""
      return f"Vector2D(x={self.x!r}, y={self.y!r})"

  def __abs__(self):
      """Return the vector magnitude."""
      return hypot(self.x, self.y)

  def __eq__(self, other):
      """Compare coordinates when the other value is a Vector2D."""
      if not isinstance(other, Vector2D):
          return NotImplemented
      return self.x == other.x and self.y == other.y

  def __add__(self, other):
      """Return a new vector containing the coordinate-wise sum."""
      if not isinstance(other, Vector2D):
          return NotImplemented
      return Vector2D(self.x + other.x, self.y + other.y)

  def __bool__(self):
      """The zero vector is false; every other vector is true."""
      return bool(self.x or self.y)

first = Vector2D(3, 4)
second = Vector2D(1, -2)

print(first)                         # (3, 4) via __str__
print(repr(first))                   # Vector2D(x=3, y=4)
print(abs(first))                    # 5.0 via __abs__
print(first == Vector2D(3, 4))       # True via __eq__

combined = first + second            # __add__ returns a new vector
print(combined)                      # (4, 2)
print(first)                         # (3, 4), unchanged

zero = Vector2D(0, 0)
print(bool(first))                   # True
print(bool(zero))                    # False

class Book:
  def __init__(self, title, author, isbn):
      self.title = title
      self.author = author
      self.isbn = isbn
      self.is_borrowed = False
      self.borrower = None

  def __str__(self):
      status = "Borrowed" if self.is_borrowed else "Available"
      return f"{self.title} by {self.author} - {status}"

class Member:
  def __init__(self, name, member_id):
      self.name = name
      self.member_id = member_id
      self.borrowed_books = []

  def __str__(self):
      return f"Member: {self.name} (ID: {self.member_id})"

class Library:
  def __init__(self, name):
      self.name = name
      self.books = []
      self.members = []

  def add_book(self, book):
      """Add book to library"""
      self.books.append(book)
      return f"Book '{book.title}' successfully added"

  def register_member(self, member):
      """Register new member"""
      self.members.append(member)
      return f"Member {member.name} successfully registered"

  def borrow_book(self, member_id, isbn):
      """Borrow book"""
      # Find member
      member = None
      for m in self.members:
          if m.member_id == member_id:
              member = m
              break

      if not member:
          return "Member not found"

      # Find book
      book = None
      for b in self.books:
          if b.isbn == isbn and not b.is_borrowed:
              book = b
              break

      if not book:
          return "Book not available"

      # Process borrowing
      book.is_borrowed = True
      book.borrower = member
      member.borrowed_books.append(book)

      return f"{member.name} successfully borrowed '{book.title}'"

  def return_book(self, member_id, isbn):
      """Return book"""
      member = None
      for m in self.members:
          if m.member_id == member_id:
              member = m
              break

      if not member:
          return "Member not found"

      book = None
      for b in member.borrowed_books:
          if b.isbn == isbn:
              book = b
              break

      if not book:
          return "Book not found in borrowed list"

      # Process return
      book.is_borrowed = False
      book.borrower = None
      member.borrowed_books.remove(book)

      return f"{member.name} successfully returned '{book.title}'"

  def get_available_books(self):
      """Get list of available books"""
      available = [book for book in self.books if not book.is_borrowed]
      return available

  def get_member_books(self, member_id):
      """Get list of books borrowed by member"""
      for member in self.members:
          if member.member_id == member_id:
              return member.borrowed_books
      return []

# Example usage of library system
library = Library("Central Library")

# Adding books
book1 = Book("Python Programming", "John Smith", "978-1234567890")
book2 = Book("Data Science Basics", "Jane Doe", "978-0987654321")
book3 = Book("Machine Learning", "Bob Johnson", "978-1122334455")

print(library.add_book(book1))
print(library.add_book(book2))
print(library.add_book(book3))

# Registering members
member1 = Member("Alice Cooper", "M001")
member2 = Member("Bob Wilson", "M002")

print(library.register_member(member1))
print(library.register_member(member2))

# Borrowing books
print(library.borrow_book("M001", "978-1234567890"))
print(library.borrow_book("M002", "978-0987654321"))

# Viewing book status
print("\nList of all books:")
for book in library.books:
  print(book)

print("\nAvailable books:")
for book in library.get_available_books():
  print(book)

print(f"\nBooks borrowed by Alice: {len(library.get_member_books('M001'))} books")

# Returning books
print(library.return_book("M001", "978-1234567890"))